Chang., 21, S50–S58, doi:10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2011.09.004. 2011238; Prince 2016239) (Section 4.2.4). Remote Sens., 5, 1117–1133, doi:10.3390/rs5031117. Short, A.D., T.G. Catena, 81, 1–11, doi:10.1016/j.catena.2010.01.001. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. Jiang, L., G. Jiapaer, A. Bao, H. Guo, and F. Ndayisaba, 2017: Vegetation dynamics and responses to climate change and human activities in Central Asia. In these areas the population has increased from approximately 172 million in 1950 to over 630 million today (Figure 1.1). 20181498). The degree of soil erosion increases from south to north. In this way, phytoplankton sequester about 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the ocean each year, causing the ocean to become a sink of carbon dioxide holding about 90% of all sequestered carbon. Benjaminsen, T.A., 2016: Does climate change lead to conflicts in the Sahel? Environ. Sustainable development of drylands under these socio-economic and environmental (climate change, desertification) conditions will also depend on the ability of dryland agricultural households to diversify their livelihoods sources (Boserup 19651209; Safriel and Adeel 20081210). Evan, A.T., C. Flamant, M. Gaetani, and F. Guichard, 2016: The past, present and future of African dust. Despite these relatively high returns, there is robust evidence that the adoption of SLM practices remains low (Cordingley et al. The practice of intensive and localised livestock herding, in combination with deep ploughing and unproductive barley agriculture, are the main drivers of severe land degradation and depletion of the rangeland natural resources. (Otto Engelbert), 1881-1934, Kuninkaan tuomio: Näytelmä 3:ssa näytöksessä lauluineen, A Tale of the Kloster: A Romance of the German Mystics of the Cocalico, Selection from J. Cattaneo, C., and G. 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(Jerome Klapka), 1859-1927, The Idler, Volume III., Issue XIII., February 1893, The Master of Mrs. Chilvers: An Improbable Comedy, On the Stage--and Off: The Brief Career of a Would-Be Actor, The Prude's Progress: A Comedy in Three Acts, The Soul of Nicholas Snyders; Or, The Miser of Zandam, Three Men in a Boat (To Say Nothing of the Dog), Tres Homes Dins D'una Barca (Sense comptar-hi el gos), The Cockaynes in Paris; Or, 'Gone abroad', How to See the British Museum in Four Visits, The Life of George Cruikshank in Two Epochs, Vol. Sci. Hagfish are the only known living animals with a skull but no vertebral column. J. Geophys. J. While many studies found widespread influence of CO2 fertilisation, it is not ubiquitous; for example, Lévesque et al. Muyibul, Z., X. Jianxin, P. Muhtar, S. Qingdong, and Z. Occitan The three-section body plan of the acorn worm is no longer present in the vertebrates, except in the anatomy of the frontal neural tube, later developed into a brain divided into three parts. The health effects of dust storms are largest in areas in the immediate vicinity of their origin, primarily the Sahara Desert, followed by Central and eastern Asia, the Middle East and Australia (Zhang et al. The remaining bony fish have ray fins. The idea of body plans originated with vertebrates, which were grouped into one phylum. 20191473). Land Use Policy, 51, 18–25, doi:10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2015.11.001. Conserv., 23, 1659–1667, doi:10.1007/s10531-014-0690-x. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. Furthermore, it is suggested that land use and climate change could cause the loss of 17% of species within shrublands and 8% within hot deserts by 2050 (low confidence) (van Vuuren et al. et al., 2017: Mapping evaporative water loss in desert passerines reveals an expanding threat of lethal dehydration. Hornbeck, R., 2012: The enduring impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short- and long-run adjustments to environmental catastrophe. Sci. 2018549) (Section 3.4.2.2). One-third of the area showed significant change in RUE, mainly occurring around the fall of the Soviet Union (1991) or as the result of major droughts. 2017265) and specifically over drylands (Wu 2014266). Reduced resource availability may also compromise immune response to novel pathogens, with increased pathogen dispersal associated with dust storms (Zinabu et al. The micro catchments are planted with native shrub seedlings, such as saltbush (Atriplex halimus), with enhanced survival as a function of increased soil moisture (Figure 3.18) and increased dry matter yields (>300 kg ha–1) that can serve as forage for livestock (Oweis 20171738; Tabieh et al. Hist. Clim. [408] Whales feed at deeper levels in the ocean where krill is found, but return regularly to the surface to breathe. Lane, 2010: Synergistic effects of water repellency and macropore flow on the hydraulic conductivity of a burned forest soil, south-east Australia. Clim. Natl. Ranieri, and U. Bernabucci, 2010: Effects of climate changes on animal production and sustainability of livestock systems. Chang., 6, 1019–1022, doi:10.1038/nclimate3092. Sci. Pathan, and K.G. Water Manag., 148, 196–206, doi:10.1016/J.AGWAT.2014.10.011. Napoletano-Calabrese (4) A view of mixed vegetation, which now covers most of the Karapınar wind erosion area in 2013, the main tree species of which were selected for afforestation with respect to their resistance to the arid continental climate conditions along with a warm/hot temperature regime over the district (Photo: Murat Türkeş1805, 17 June 2013). Navarro, M. Almagro, J.G. Chang., 46, 23–33, doi:10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2017.06.010. Bachelet, D., K. Ferschweiler, T. Sheehan, and J. Strittholt, 2016: Climate change effects on southern California deserts. Abdullaev, I., M. Ul Hassan, and K. Jumaboev, 2007: Water saving and economic impacts of land leveling: The case study of cotton production in Tajikistan. Sci. Remote Sens., 3, 1–13, doi:10.3390/rs3010001. Enabling the policy responses discussed in this section will contribute to overcoming these market failures. We have now placed Twitpic in an archived state. Gobbett, and H. Horan, 2017: Climate trends account for stalled wheat yields in Australia since 1990. General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion (ÇEMGM), 2017: Combating Desertification and Erosion Activities in Turkey. 20121179; Woolcock and Narayan 20001180). Ecol. In the arid region of north-western China, Liu et al. and T.P. [148] Other marine protist are neither single-celled nor microscopic, such as seaweed. Chemosphere, 55, 227–255, doi:10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2003.10.050. Megnounif, A. and A.N. Coates, M.L. Thus, hyper-arid areas contain mostly deserts, with some small exceptions, for example, where grasslands and croplands are cultivated under oasis conditions with irrigation (Section 3.7.4). In: Climate Change, Intercropping, Pest Control and Beneficial Microorganisms [Lichtfouse, E (ed.)]. 2013974), there is a growing emphasis on avoiding and reducing land degradation, following the Land Degradation Neutrality framework (Cowie et al. 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J. Hernández-Brito, R. Davenport, and G. Wefer, 2004: Dust deposition pulses to the eastern subtropical North Atlantic gyre: Does ocean’s biogeochemistry respond? 40–65. In: Economics of Land Degradation and Improvement – A Global Assessment for Sustainable Development [Nkonya, E., A. Mirzabaev, and J. von Braun (eds.)]. Sustain. Wildemeersch, J.C.J. [327] Lobe fins evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates, so by extension an early ancestor of humans was a lobe-finned fish. 20151289; Nyanga et al. Eik (eds.)]. However, the information on the future interactions between climate and desertification (beyond changes in the aridity index) are lacking. 2014929). Ge, X., Y. Li, A.E. This is due to higher population growth rates in drylands. Land, 6, 89, doi:10.3390/land6040089. Samuel, A., and K.J. 2016261). Use our public records search to find the right person with the last name Yang. Ali, 2017: Migration Futures in Asia and Africa: Economic Opportunities and Distributional Effects – the Case of Pakistan. 2018; Kaspari et al. Available information is mostly on separate, individual impacts of either (mostly) climate change or desertification. Atmos., 120, 1536–1564, doi:10.1002/2014JD022471. Sustain., 1, 623–631, doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0155-4. Change, 133, 37–52, doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0812-6. and K.A. Innovare J. Agric. Geophys. Explor. The second major lesson is the cost of inaction. Serpa, D. et al., 2015: Impacts of climate and land use changes on the hydrological and erosion processes of two contrasting Mediterranean catchments. in Eleven Volumes, Volume 06, The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend.[422]. Indic., 48, 560–569, doi:10.1016/J.ECOLIND.2014.08.043. (2013)279 also applied the RESTREND method to VOD. [368], The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus, discovered in 1986, forms today part of the base of the ocean food chain and accounts for much of the photosynthesis of the open ocean[369] and an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Annu. More recent estimates, based on remotely sensed data, show that about 24–29% of the global land area experienced reductions in biomass productivity between the 1980s and 2000s (Bai et al. Zinabu, S., A. Kebede, B. Ferede, and J. Dugassa, 2018: Review on the relationship of climate change and prevalence of animal diseases. 20101339; Ostrom and Nagendra 20061340). Hydrogeol. J. Liu et al. Dobrowski, S.A. Policies aiming at improving market access, that is the ability to access output and input markets at lower costs, help farmers and livestock producers earn more profit from their produce. Arid Environ., 72, 1265–1281, doi:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2008.01.002. Charney, J., P.H. Water Manag., 107, 1–13. S Yusa, A. et al., 2015: Climate change, drought and human health in Canada. Weltz, M., and K. Spaeth, 2012: Estimating effects of targeted conservation on nonfederal rangelands. Remote Sens. The costs of these water quality impacts are yet to be adequately quantified. Rainfall is both highly seasonal and variable, with the prominent impact of the El Niño/ La Niña phenomena and the Southern Oscillation leading to severe droughts (Jury 20161766). et al., 2017: Fire frequency drives decadal changes in soil carbon and nitrogen and ecosystem productivity. Johnson, 2012: Practical advice for implementing long-term ecosystem monitoring. 1, Traditions of the North American Indians, Vol. As preventing desertification is strongly preferable and more cost-effective than allowing land to degrade and then attempting to restore it (IPBES 2018b973; Webb et al. A key issue is the assumption in the calculation of potential evapotranspiration that stomatal conductance remains constant, which is invalid if atmospheric CO2 changes. They are not necessarily exclusive to drylands and are often implemented across a range of biomes and anthromes (Figure 3.10; for afforestation, see Section 3.7.2, Cross-Chapter Box 2 in Chapter 1, and Chapter 4 (Section 4.8.3)). In: Climate and Land Degradation [Sivakumar, M.V.K. Schaepman, 2008: Proxy global assessment of land degradation. Effective drought preparedness plans require well-coordinated and integrated government actions – a key lesson learnt from 2015 to 2017 during drought response in Cape Town, South Africa (Visser 20181460). Res., 18, 497–504, doi:10.4209/aaqr.2017.09.0325. Environ. In: Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing, Remote Sensing Time Series: Revealing Land Surface Dynamics [Kuenzer, C., S. Dech and W. Wagner (eds.)]. Goudie, A., 2013: The Human Impact on the Natural Environment: Past, Present and Future. 20181593). Parts of the dry Chaco and Caldenal regions in Argentina have undergone widespread degradation over the last century (Verón et al. 651–682. Choobari, O.A., P. Zawar-Reza, and A. Sturman, 2014: The global distribution of mineral dust and its impacts on the climate system: A review. Stud., 1, 60–74, doi:10.18063/IJPS.2015.01.004. Hydrol. The Green Dam did not have the desired effects. About 0.65 Mha of arable land were prone to soil erosion by wind (Mavlyanova et al. As juveniles, animals develop from microscopic stages, which can include spores, eggs and larvae. These include: improved land levelling and more efficient irrigation methods such as drip, sprinkler and alternate furrow irrigation (Gupta et al. Li, A., J. Wu, and J. Huang, 2012: Distinguishing between human-induced and climate-driven vegetation changes: A critical application of RESTREND in inner Mongolia. Stern, D.I., 2017: The environmental Kuznets curve after 25 years. ATMÓSFERA, 31, 355–372, doi:10.20937/ATM.2018.31.04.04. Arid Environ., 127, 17–29, doi:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2015.10.003. 20111778). Arid Environ., 127, 222–234, doi:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2015.12.005. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 542 pp. Chang. Policy, 79, 25–35, doi:10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2017.10.011. UNEP.Edward Arnold, London, UK, 69 pp. Energy Rev., 76, 72–80. Mechanical techniques include building palisades to prevent the movement of sand and reduce sand deposits on infrastructure. Even when solutions are available, their costs could be prohibitive, presenting the limits to adaptation (Dixon et al. Stringer, and R. Thomas, 2011: Integrated land degradation monitoring and assessment: Horizontal knowledge management at the national and international levels. Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. Res., 4, 88–101. Sci. Moritz, M.A., M.-A. Bulkeley, H., 2013: Cities and Climate Change. 20151246; Sanz et al. [227] The outer layer of simple epithelial cells bear cilia which the animal uses to help it creep along the seafloor. To improve the monitoring capability and technical level of desertification studies, the monitoring network system has been strengthened, and the popularisation and application of modern technologies have been intensified (e.g., information technology and remote sensing) (Wu et al. Hence, women’s and men’s environmental knowledge and priorities for restoration often differ (Sijapati Basnett et al. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. The risk of and severity of water erosion is a function of human land-use activities that increase soil loss through removal of vegetative cover. Booysen, M.J., M. Visser, and R. Burger, 2019: Temporal case study of household behavioural response to Cape Town’s ‘Day Zero’ using smart meter data. 2005300; Damberg and AghaKouchak 2014301). et al., 2013: Climate change and North American rangelands: Trends, projections, and implications. Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this led to the near-extinction of oxygen-intolerant organisms, a dramatic change which redirected the evolution of the major animal and plant species. Clim., 24, 4584–4599, doi:10.1175/2010JCLI3794.1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 7 pp. Found inside – Page 712THE FLOBIST'S EXCHANGE , 170 Falton St. , Now York . and all necessary outbuildings . , Land in high state of cultivation . Address J. SHALI , OUTSIDE ... et al., 2011: Human-mediated introductions of Australian acacias – A global experiment in biogeography. However, there are some studies that indicate that soil erosion will be reduced in Spain (Zabaleta et al. Kazmerski, 2018: Solar energy dust and soiling R&D progress: Literature review update for 2016. Environ. Planet. Fownes, and R.A. Harrington, 2004: Nitrogen limits an invasive perennial shrub in forest understory. Glob. 2012747; Mani and Pillai 2010748; Mejia and Kleissl 2013749; Mejia et al. 20181680; Iknayan and Beissinger 20181681; Ling et al. Res. Austral Ecol., 38, 831–840, doi:10.1111/aec.12039. Recent reviews of the governance and implementation of IWM within the basin recognise that an integrated approach is needed and that a robust institutional, legal, political, operational, technical and support environment is crucial (Alba et al. They found the area undergoing desertification due to non-climatic causes is much smaller than the area with negative VOD trends. Biogeogr., 21, 75–87, doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00573.x. Dryland ecosystems have high levels of faunal diversity and endemism (MEA 2005636; Whitford 2002637). Vol. B Biol. Due to the large increase in PET and decrease in precipitation over some subtropical land areas, aridity index will decrease in some drylands (Zhao and Dai 2015860), with one model estimating approximately 10% increase in hyper-arid areas globally (Zeng and Yoon 2009861). Melde, S., Laczko, F., and Gemenne, F., 2017: Making Mobility Work for Adaptation to Environmental Changes: Results from the MECLEP Global Research. 2017428) and globally (Andela et al. Stud., 22, 100593, doi:10.1016/J.EJRH.2019.100593. [30] It has been estimated the outer crust of solid ice is about 10–30 km (6–19 mi) thick and the liquid ocean underneath is about 100 km (60 mi) deep. 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These ecosystem services in drylands are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to high variability in temperature, precipitation and soil fertility (Enfors and Gordon 2008543; Mortimore 2005544). 2004588), resulting in net carbon emissions at an ecosystem level. et al., 2014: Achieving food security for one million Sub-Saharan African poor through push-pull innovation by 2020. 20051664) suggest that there is a need to understand current and past climatic variability as this will drive wildfire variability and invasions of annual grasses. Vertebrates took 30 million years to recover from this event. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Geoforum, 39, 1951–1964, doi:10.1016/J.GEOFORUM.2008.07.010. Gerber, N., and A. Mirzabaev, 2017: Benefits of Action and Costs of Inaction: Drought Mitigation and Preparedness – A Literature Review. SOC is also lost due to soil erosion (Lal 2009127); therefore, in some dryland areas leading to SOC decline (Sections 3.3.3 and 3.5.2) and the transfer of carbon (C) from soil to the atmosphere (Lal 2009128). Most SLM practices can become financially profitable within 3 to 10 years (medium evidence, high agreement). Improving social awareness about the benefits of transitioning to renewable energy resources, and access to hydro-energy, solar and wind energy contributes to their improved adoption (Aliyu et al. H Glob. Clin. [242][243], Protostomes (from Greek for first mouth) are a superphylum of animals. (eds. As a result, they wander or drift with the currents. Sustain. Plant life can also flourish in the brackish waters of estuaries, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass beach grass might grow. Proceedings of Workshop on Noxious Weeds in Production of Certified Seeds, 11–12 July. Conserv. [168][169] This profile changes between seasons due to changes in nutrient availability. 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They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even feed on each other. J. 20161291). Saparov, A., 2014: Soil resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Current status, problems and solutions. Roderick, 2012: Little change in global drought over the past 60 years. Disaster Risk Reduct., 17, 85–94, doi:10.1016/J.IJDRR.2016.04.005. Salinisation has also been found to be degrading parts of the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia (Rengasamy 2006372). Similarly, desertification affects parts of India (Kundu et al. 2005608; Griffin et al. Protists have been described as a taxonomic grab bag where anything that doesn't fit into one of the main biological kingdoms can be placed. Middle East. Singh, 2016: Linkages between land use changes, desertification and human development in the Thar Desert Region of India. Franklin, K., and F. 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Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to evolve an ability to turn sunlight into chemical energy. Ginoux et al. Energy Rev., 81, 2502–2518, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.055. Atmos. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts,Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Mammal., 89, 691–699, doi:10.1644/07-MAMM-A-199R.1. 2015689; Xi and Sokolik 2015690), with growing negative impacts on human health (high confidence) (Díaz et al. : human-induced greening of the tropical belt: evidence from Tanzania zones Arides site ’! Goedecke 2016675 ; Tun et al conducted in the Chihuahuan desert rodents vanderduys, J.J. and... Within coupled social-ecological systems Reichstein, and D. Altinbilek, ( eds. ]...: modeling suspended sediment transport and Assessing land degradation and ecological restoration: Reclaiming landscapes for sustainable! A.T. Evan, A.T., 2018: humidity determines snowpack ablation under a climate. 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