The temperature of the plume will be greatest near the plume centerline and therefore the greatest heat flux to the ceiling surface will be at this location at this point throughout the duration of the fire. Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. In 1997, a formal heat and flame vector analysis was conducted with three of the USFA fire pattern tests. The combustion within this compartment is of a high efficiency and the yields of soot and carbon monoxide (CO) are low (Pitts 1994). 2014). Drysdale (2011) indicates that the average compartment temperatures are highest near the cross over between fuel-controlled and ventilation-controlled. The three compartments were similarly constructed measuring 11ft, 5in. Combustion Science and Technology 39:195214, Dillon S (1998) Analysis of the ISO 9705 Room/Corner Test: Simulations, Correlations and Heat Flux Measurements. Cue 3- increasing lines of demarcation moving out of vent openings. fire patterns) in an attempt to reconstruct the fires development. The most emphasis was placed on combustibles involved and openings and ventilation. Fire investigators describe this consistent damage to tops of contents as radiant heat damage being caused by the upper layer. They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). Fire Patterns (2 of 2) Analyze fire patterns within the context of all the patterns. The use of depth of char and relating this depth to duration of burning has fluctuated as to its usefulness in fire investigations since the mid-1950s. Experts actually get down on hands and knees to search for any physical clues, like accelerants, matches, cigarette butts, tire marks, or footprints. Consumption is a function of heat transfer and the material properties. 1981; Thomas 1981). Typically, investigators look at the face of the wallboard and make a visible determination of the DOFD. The determination of the mature of an irregular pattern should not be made by visual interpretation of the pattern alone. In the United Kingdom the use of fire patterns can be found within the literature, though, they tended to discuss these as directional signposts where the heat flow will cause asymmetric effects within the building (Cooke and Ide 1985). 11). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. There were two windows and one door, where one window was closed and the other open for the fire duration, while the door was opened 5min post-ignition. Alternative explanations are now commonly given when discussing penetrations through floors, including: radiant heat, furniture items, melting plastics and pre-existing openings in the floor during fully involved compartment fire (NFPA 2014) (Fig. smoke, aerosols). The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. These included that soot deposition can be used to aid in the area of origin determination and that the clean burn area size was proportional to the fire size (Wolfe et al. The majority of these texts stated that the investigator should consider the damage to be caused by an ignitable liquid if the investigator would visibly observe damage to the floor in the shape of a puddle, have hard-edged burn marks in the shape of a pour, or the damage had the appearance of trailers (i.e. Once the investigators have narrowed down a 100 square foot section of burned area as the starting point, they bring out the fine-toothed combs. What are the 4 elements of extinguishment? Several examples are provided along with engineering calculations such as: Inverted Cone Patterns; Column-shaped Patterns; V-shaped or Cone Patterns; U-shapes and Double U-shaped Patterns; 2003). 2006; Hicks et al. A survey conducted in 2012 reflected similar findings to that of the NCFS survey where 586 fire investigators revealed that 50% had a bachelors degree or higher, of which only 18% were related to science or engineering (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson with the visible appearance of char being one of the predominant misconceptions (Boudreau et al. The fire origin will ultimately be connected to a plume generated fire pattern. As expected, the results indicated that the patterns generated by the polyurethane foam fire had greater uncertainty than the natural gas and gasoline pool fires. The one test that deviated showed a V-pattern emanating from the floor behind the entertainment center giving the appearance that the fire origin could be interpreted to be located on or near the floor behind the entertainment center when the fire origin was to the left and along side the television inside the entertainment center (Hoffmann et al. 2003). The first published fire pattern tests was in 1984 (Custer and Wright 1984). \This type of structured approach to reaching better decisions has been applied in various fields, from business and economic decisions (Clemen and Reilly 2001), to building and fire safety analysis and regulation (Donegan 2008; Meacham 2000), diagnostic support within the psychological, psychiatric and medical professions (Boorse 1976; DSM-IV-TR 2000), failure analysis (Benner 1975; Ericson 1999; Vesely et al. 1977). The final two tests were performed after multiple television sets and electronic appliances were placed on wood stands and on the floor in a burn room containing an upholstered chair and area rugboth of these tests were allowed to progress into full-room involvement and were not extinguished until 4min past flashover (Hoffmann et al. Notice, however, none of these documents came out and directly stated that an investigator could not identify an ignitable liquid from a floor pattern based on observation, they only warned that it cannot always be reliably identified (NFPA 1992). Noted differences with this level line of demarcation are damage in corners and near ventilation openings. Paper presented at the Fire and Materials Conference. Two 15ft by 15ft (4.57m4.57m) structures with a ceiling height of 7ft (2.13m) were tested. Determining which effect or effects reflect varying degrees of damage is the key to successfully assessing damage. However, most of these documents also cautioned against relying solely on the use of visible observations and encouraged the investigator to take samples of fire debris for analysis. 2004). melting of plastics, oxidation of metals). Therefore, the walls, ceiling and floor surfaces are now receiving an elevated heat flux, in addition to the already burning fuel receiving greater feedback, increasing its own HRR and other fuels becoming involved. Although these studies demonstrated that depth of calcination surveys assisted in the area of origin determination, neither developed a process to quickly process a fire scene. Ngu (2004) performed similar experimental work as Schroeder (1999). However, others argued that many variables such as the type of wood, variations in burning within the compartment, firefighting operations and orientation of the wood influenced the rate of charring and suggested that investigators only use the locations of greater depths as relative longer exposures to heating that should not necessarily be tied to a duration of burning (Kirk 1969; DeHaan 1983; Ettling, 1990). location and elevation). In essence this shows that fire investigators were trained to identify the greatest area of damage and that this would be the area of origin. PubMedGoogle Scholar. The forces bearing on the fire were identified in this text as (a) combustibles involved, (b) openings and ventilation, (c) winds and drafts, (d) explosions and (e) variations from normal burning. One of the 11 NWCG categories of fire pattern indicators. Fire Safety Journal 38:709745, Lentini J (2012) Scientific Protocols for Fire Investigation. Madrzykowski and Fleischmann (2012) completed work on flame plume damage against a gypsum wallboard lined wall and showed that for smaller HRR fuels (2080kW) the maximum width of damage was never greater than 1.5 times the width of the fuel. This is still a common practice in fire investigations with these undamaged areas termed protected areas. Processes that identify thresholds needed for fire patterns to be identified can be better defined through experimental work or pattern recognition studies. The fuels used for their experiments included a natural gas burner, gasoline pool fire and polyurethane foam. 1 and 2). Kirks (1969) text was the first reference that indicated investigators could use this data for more than just direction of damage when he explained investigators make measurements with the idea of determining the length of time the fire burned at this point. Schroeders results varied widely as to depths of char in relation to the duration and intensity of exposed heat flux, which led him to conclude that wood was not a good indicator for predicting intensity of duration of exposures. Self-published, California (USA), Stratakis G, Stamatelos A (2003) Thermogravimetric analysis of soot emitted by a modern diesel engine run on catalyst-doped fuel. Two tests also had a window that measured 3ft by 4ft in height (0.91m1.22m) with a 2ft, 6in. Each test fire resulted in damage along the wall opposite of the door opening, progressively greater in magnitude with the longer duration in full-room involvement burning. 2010; Mealy et al. However, an assumption can be made for fuel-controlled fires that higher temperatures will occur at the plume interface with any building or contents surface. 2006). The high temperature gases and soot in the upper layer influences the patterns formed on lining materials of the compartment and contents. 4 Kirk being one of the few texts at the time that opposed this idea when declaring flammable liquids never carry fire downward (Kirk 1969). SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, Quincy, MA, Hicks W, Gorbett G, Kennedy P, Hopkins R, Abney W (2006) Advanced Fire Pattern Research Project. Fire investigators have historically relied upon damage as a means to conclude where a fire originated. This project consisted of 10 separate full-scale tests to produce the first scientifically controlled and recorded research into the formation, growth and investigation of patterns produced in fires. However, he found that much higher charring rates apply to floors and to any other wood members where charring is affected by the presence of gaps or joints. The use of 2 springs running parallel to each other allows for equal pressure on each side of the tool (Fig. Cue 6-increased area and magnitude of damage around gypsum wallboard seams. The authors have since noted several limitations to this exercise including that the participants were not permitted to complete a full investigation of the compartment, were not allowed to move any items and had to make a conclusion based on their visual interpretation of the damage from the doorway. The fire testing conducted for fire patterns has evolved with the changing definition of the term. Kirk continues the discussion by cautioning the investigator that this pattern will be altered by the presence of obstructions, or of readily burned fuel in localized areas, and he warns that a very common complication arises when areas of excellent ventilation are present where intense burns will be noted in such areas that may well distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). 1997). Multiple carpet pads were tested. Finally, an area that is white in color surrounded by soot areas should not be classified as a clean burn area until closer examination is performed. The lack of damage has often times been overlooked in most discussions related to fire patterns. The fire pattern studies revealed that the upper layer damage is very difficult to identify after the fire has transitioned into ventilation-controlled conditions. Fire plumes against wall surfaces have shown to have moderate heat fluxes ranging from 40 to 80kW/m2, while heat fluxes measured in tests with objects immersed in diffusion flames range between 75 and 200kW/m2 Heskestad (1982); (Qian and Saito 1992; Dillon 1998; Lattimer 2008). However, this report also demonstrated that in two tests, distinctive patterns were produced which without careful study and a full understanding of all factors which influenced the progress and growth of the fire, could easily be interpreted to indicate incorrect or multiple origins (Shanley et al. Source: Guide to Wildland Fire Origin and Cause Determination, PMS 412. Additional comparison and control samples were generated using ignitable liquid pours that achieved post-flashover conditions without use of the burner, but with the burner in place to maintain test consistency. The investigator has always been tasked to evaluate damage from lesser to greater with minimal advice related to any meaning that exists for the lack of damage or the lesser damaged areas (Rethoret 1945). In their report, authored by its Research Council on Post-Fire Investigation, they recommended, if patterns are to be used for origin and cause determination, forensic methods to identify the specific source of a pattern need to be developed and rigorously vetted (NFPA, 2002, p.5). Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Technology Report 828, Heskestad G (2008) Fire Plumes, Flame Height and Air Entrainment. They appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas (NFPA 2014). The wall construction had no significant impact on the damage. 1997). (2013) developed a constant force depth of calcination tool to eliminate inconsistencies in depth of calcination measurements to provide a more practical application of the tool based on the Ngu (2004) and Mealy (2013) studies. The Mealy, Wolfe and Gottuk study used the Ngu force gauge to ensure that the user performed their measurements with similar force (Mealy et al. Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 4 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by ventilation. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), Ngu C (2004) Calcination of Gypsum Plasterboard under Fire Exposure. As such, fire origin determination is largely a matter of fire pattern recognition and interpretation (NFPA 2014). 2008; Gorbett et al. This type of damage was noted in the USFA study with specificity (Shanley et al. For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. Several studies have shown that the depth of calcination reliably indicates intensity and duration of heat exposure. 1997). The other more pervasive misconception dealt with the angle and base of the V-pattern. As explained in this method, the two-dimensional shapes and patterns would be formed by the overall three-dimensional plume as it intersected these surfaces resulting in V-shape and U-shape patterns on walls, contents and vertical structural member and Radial-shaped patterns on the ceiling and horizontal obstructions. Rethoret (1945) describes that the fire investigator should study closely the depth of carbonization at various places, as this will bring the investigator in getting back to the point of origin. The three tests were better instrumented with three total heat flux gauges, one radiant heat flux gauge, three gas sensors (measuring O2, CO2, CO), and gas velocity probes (Oullette 2008). plastics, wood) will result in either physical or chemical changes. gtuSLH{2lF>u;yQ2J)@p"cZLL#u9z}.AnwFA?kRr}8F&tr d{Dy{{ \|u)(pV W This type of damage was first identified as being helpful at determining the area of origin by Straeter and Crawford (1955). NFPA 921s original definition stated fire patterns are the physical effects that are visible or measurable remaining after a fireincluding thermal effects on materials, such as charring, oxidation, consumption of combustibles, smoke and soot deposits, distortion, melting, color changes, changes in the character of materials, structural collapse and other effects (NFPA 1992). Investigators work backward from the outer lines, examining everything in the fire's path for clues to the direction in which the fire was moving. This will leave a series of burned studs, which serve as pointers or arrows to trace the fire (Kennedy 1959). This study provides an understanding of the fire risk of building's exterior wall geometry design at different altitudes. fuels, building materials, furnishings, contents. Other areas of damage can surround the pattern, but the pattern must have characteristics that allow the limits of it to be individually identified. Theobald (1968) performed a series of experiments with target combustible items (wood blocks, cotton cloth and plywood) located at 0.45m and 0.9m above the floor at various lateral distances away from a variety of common residential fuel items burning, such as a kitchen chair, easy chair, arm chair, bookcases and wardrobes. Flashcards. Thus, a fire investigator must have a solid grasp of the physics and variables that influence a fires development, as well as how these variables may or may not have influenced the damage outcome. Their use of this method was stated to ensure that an investigator would be required to provide an indication of the degree of accuracy, as well as provide an area for excavation. The principle behind fire patterns was first linked to the need to trace the fire spread (Rethoret 1945). National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. (USA), Carman S (2008) Burn Pattern Development in Post-Flashover Fires. (1997)) and Gorbett et al. He then recorded the maximum lateral distances at which the target fuels were scorched, charred, or ignited. Typically, flashover occurs at a =1.0 (Wieczorek et al. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. 2004). Airflow from a ventilation opening has been shown in previous compartment fire studies to cause flames to lean over significantly and that the influence of this factor decreases as the plume is moved back away from the vent (Steckler et al. The damage observed to wall, ceiling and content surfaces is an artifact of the fire dynamics for that fire. The first use of the term pattern was in 1969 by Kirk when discussing the normal behavior of heated gases. (1997)) contends that the source of available fresh air from adjacent spaces will have a significant influence on whether or not the ventilation-generated patterns are prevalent with such magnitude. The damage cues evaluated for plume-generated damage included: Cue 1-loss of mass to fuel is consistent with damage to affected surface. These findings were reported as only being applicable for pre-flashover fires. International Association of Arson Investigators 5:119120, Crofton, MD, Kennedy J (1959) Fire and Arson Investigating. The scene investigators most important hypothesis is the correct identification of the origin of the fire (NFPA 2014). The investigation of fires is one of the more complicated forensic sciences due to the continuously altered or destroyed evidence by the fire itself. 2009-DN-BX-K232. Carman (2008) noted similar areas of damage of great magnitude directly opposite door openings and within the inflow of the air from this door. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 11:1518, Crofton, MD, Kirk P (1969) Fire Investigation. This pattern has been associated with a fuel package that has the potential HRR to overcome the thermal inertia and start a pyrolysis reaction in the surface material, thereby creating the pattern, but insufficient energy to produce a plume which reaches any horizontal restriction above the fuel package (Hicks et al. 2009). The fire plume is typically the highest temperature zone within the compartment, which can lead to significant damage (Beyler 1986; Lattimer 2008). As the fire continues to grow, the pattern becomes . There are hundreds of materials that can be found in residential occupancies, as such there are thousands of studies that would need to be reviewed and summarized here to identify the characteristics of the material properties and the impact that heat has on each material. Fire Technology 17(2):98119, McGraw R, Mowrer F (1999) Flammability of Painted Gypsum Wallboard Subjected to Fire Heat Fluxes. (1991) witnessed a 5070% decrease in peak heat flux values when small standoff distances (0.050.25m) were employed. The majority of the experimental work has been conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two ventilation openings. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Technical Note 1618, Maryland (USA), Mann D, Putaansuu N (2009) Studies of the Dehydration/Calcination of Gypsum Wallboard. Shanley et al. This misconception persists despite the warnings from both the fire science and fire investigation communities (Shanley et al. Several myths have been associated with geometric shapes that cause investigators pause before using the shapes as descriptors. In 1985, Cooke and Ide put forward a process termed radius of error (Cooke and Ide 1985). These tests demonstrated similar findings as Carmans tests (2008) that significant heat flux and clean burn occurs on the wall directly across the room from the doorway. Particulates and aerosols are deposited and heat is transferred in the same direction and flow as the smoke. Each compartment had a door that measured 2ft, 7in. The three tests were conducted with identical contents and ventilation. Mealy et al. Each of the seven steps will have a process or multiple processes that assist in moving the decision maker through the overall process of determining an area of origin. 2010). Paper presented at InterFlam99. Magnitude refers to the degree of damage to the material. A hypothesis of pseudo chimney effect is provided. (2004) had flames resulting from a lack of mixing within the compartment, which has also been identified in compartments with combustible linings (Drysdale 2011). Such data include the patterns produced by the fire (NFPA 2014). Cambridge Press, Cambridge (UK), Morvan G, Jolly D, Dupont D, Kubiak P (2007) A Decision Support System for Forensic Entomology., Paper presented at EUROSIM 2007 conference, http://www.forenseek.org/spip/?A-Decision-Support-System-for,46, NFPA (1992) NFPA 921-Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigation. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Kerber S (2010) Impact of Ventilation on Fire Behavior in Legacy and Contemporary Residential Construction. Fire Pattern Investigation of automotive fires often involves the interpretation of burn or heat damage patterns on the vehicle body, in the engine compartment, passenger compartment (interior), or cargo space. 20). Anderson5146. as the height of the plume increases what happens to the width. Plenary Paper Presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Another series of full-scale fire tests was conducted with funding provided by the National Institute of Justice (Putorti 1997). The Institution of Fire Engineers, Leicester (UK), Cox A (2013) Origin Matrix Analysis: A Systematic Methodology for the Assessment and Interpretation of Compartment Fire Damage. This includes the spring housing and rear slider block. irradiances measured 0.05m away range to near 80kW/m2 for the fastest burning specimens; however, 40kW/m2 was not recorded farther than 0.44m away and 20kW/m2 was not found beyond 0.88m distant. The scientific method is proclaimed throughout the document as the generic process for investigating a fire, but no specific procedural details are outlined on how to implement it into practice for analyzing fire patterns. Mealy et al. A DOFD scale for gypsum wallboard was developed and tested based on the findings from these studies (Gorbett et al. The fires that are located at the extremes of the spectrum (i.e. Next, the participants were provided with depth of char measurements for all content items and depth of calcination measurements for all of the walls for the same compartment fire and were asked to re-examine the photographs and select an area of origin again. Example of a Heat and Flame Vector Analysis Diagram (fire origin located in center of couch-fire test conducted at EKU by author). And magnitude of damage is the key to successfully assessing damage ), ngu C 2004! Over between fuel-controlled and ventilation-controlled are deposited and heat is transferred in the same direction and flow as height... The compartment and contents a DOFD scale for gypsum wallboard was developed and based! And base of the fire has transitioned into ventilation-controlled conditions still a common practice in fire Investigations protected.. Work has been conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two ventilation.... 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